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Nature and Society Editorial - April-May 2006 Early cartographers used to spread a mythical land, Terra australis incognita, across the bottom of their maps. Capt Cook’s second voyage in 1772-5 was planned to prove or disprove the existence of this land. Cook did sweeps through the Pacific and went further south than anyone else had ever been. He circumnavigated the globe in high latitudes, three times crossing the Antarctic Circle. He conclusively proved that there could not be a large, unknown landmass outside that circle. He realised that any land inside it would be permanently covered in ice and snow and, not unreasonably, thought it would be useless to humans. However sealers thought otherwise and within a few decades they were devastating the fur seal population in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters. In the process they discovered many of the islands in the area. Scientific interest in the region as well as national rivalry led to three great expeditions being mounted about 1840, one led by Dumont d’Urville (France), one by Charles Wilkes (USA) and one by James Clark Ross (Britain). Then there was a gap until the three year oceanographic voyage of HMS Challenger, 1872-6. Increasing interest resulted in an International Polar Year, 1882-3. A second IPY, concentrating on ionospheric and atmospheric research, followed in 1932-3. Since then we have had the International Geophysical Year, 1957-8, and are coming up to another IPY, actually two full years, 2007-9. This time there will be a strong emphasis on climate research. Of the epic journeys of the Heroic age, roughly 1895-1915, almost all incorporated important scientific work. Expeditions were mounted by many countries, not only the ones we normally hear about. Although Antarctica has certainly seen more than its fair share of rivalry it has also seen a quite unusual amount of cooperation, especially through the various international years. One of the most hopeful documents we could have is the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959. There were twelve signatories originally, mainly countries that laid claim to parts of the continent, some of whose claims were overlapping. They agreed that Antarctica should be a natural reserve devoted to peace and science. There are now over forty signatories in two categories, consultative states that conduct significant scientific research and acceding states that sign the treaty and adhere to its principles. All territorial claims are frozen and countries set up bases in other’s territories. Scientists from different countries work cooperatively with each other even when their countries are at war, as in the case of Britain and Argentina during the Falklands conflict. All bases and scientific programs can be, and are, monitored by other countries’ staff. The Antarctic Treaty is a wonderful example for the world. Antarctica is of global significance in other ways, too. The world was shocked in 1985 when British scientists found the thinning of the ozone layer that became known as the hole in the ozone. For the first time it was realised that what happened in the northern hemisphere affected Antarctica and the cure required global cooperation and action. Now we know that the Antarctic is actually a powerful engine that plays a major role in global climate. Mess with it and the consequences could be devastating. Yet that is what we are doing. We know there are changes in ocean currents in both Arctic and Antarctic waters. These currents run as giant conveyor belts, carrying water from south to north and back again. They distribute heat and carry oxygen and nutrients. Without this flow the deeper ocean will become stagnant, climates will change, all life will suffer. Antarctic ice cores carry records of past climates and of what we are doing to the atmosphere now. We can go back in time for thousands of years by studying the bubbles of air trapped in the ice and also by analysing the isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon in the shells of marine animals, especially foraminifera, contained in sediments. It is no good claiming that we are not changing the atmosphere; the record is there and it is clear. Many people are understandably upset by the insistence of some countries to continue whaling. What they don’t understand is that we, all countries that continue to emit greenhouse gases in large quantities, will be guilty of more destruction. There is evidence that the southern ocean is becoming less productive. Cold waters support far more phytoplankton, the tiny floating plants that form the base of the food web, than do warmer waters. The phytoplankton are also susceptible to damage from excess ozone. With this food source reduced krill, and all species that depend on it, are in danger. Already, it seems, some penguin species are starving. To make matters worse we harvest krill for our own consumption, as a ‘crab extender’, or even as an agricultural fertiliser. We must understand that species such as baleen whales and the misnamed crab eater seals have evolved to harvest large quantities of krill in a single mouthful, not to pick up the left overs if we take the dense concentrations. It is ironic that whales were nearly wiped out to provide the oil to light the lamps in northern cities. They were saved, in part, by the growth of the electricity and petroleum industries. Now they are threatened by the outpourings of those very industries. Many thousands of scientists will be studying the Antarctic and Arctic especially during the Polar Year. They will find some answers and many more questions about what we are doing to those precious areas and what effect this will have on the rest of the world. The cooperation between scientists from all over the world sets a good example for the rest of us. If we can get the same cooperation between governments and industry to take effective action to address the problems our consumption causes, then much good could come of it. Antarctica has inspired and fascinated many people. Maybe it can inspire us to save the world. April-May 2006 edition accessible here
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